Although the tomato is a fruit, it is much more used as a vegetable. The tomato originates from northwestern South America, between the Andes Cordillera and the Pacific. Its name comes from the Inca word Tomatl. Cultivated in full field or under shelter, in all climates, it’s probably the food that has undergone the most mutations and manipulations, genetic or not. Cultivated off-ground, artificially nourished, calibrated to have a perfect shape, round or oval, the tomato has become a product which can travel without harm, odorless and flavorless and available all year round. Fortunately, over the past few years, producers have reproduced tomatoes from forgotten old varieties which are cultivated according to their season.

History of tomato

The term “tomato” comes from the Spanish tomato, which originates from Xitomatl, Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs of Mexico. At the time, it was not known that the tomato came from America; The Arabs were usually given the introduction into Europe of any new vegetable or fruit.

The tomato is native to the Andes, in South America, and there are still wild forms today. The ancestor of the cultivated species could be the cherry tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum var. cerasiforme. It was reportedly introduced to Central America and Mexico in prehistoric times, more than 2 000 years ago. The wind, the streams, the birds or the Indians migrating northward would have transported it and found fertile ground for its establishment.

It does not appear to have been consumed by the natives of its original area. On the contrary, it was adopted in the diet of Mexicans who, by selection, have obtained many varieties. Indeed, during the conquest, the Spaniards discovered at the market of the city of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, several types of tomatoes of colors, flavors and various forms.

Like all the plants of American origin discovered at that time, the tomato was first introduced in Spain in the sixteenth century. The Spaniards and Italians were the first to adopt it as food. We have to wait two centuries before seeing it in a cookbook. It is that the unengaging odor of its leaves and stems, as well as its resemblance to the toxic plants of the family of Solanaceae that inspired distrust. Therefore, it was cultivated first as an object of curiosity, in the botanical or private gardens.

In the eighteenth century, it was cultivated intensively in Italy and, to a lesser extent, in the other countries of Europe. The Italians performed a considerable selection work in order to obtain larger, smoother fruits and thicker skin. They developed an effective technique to dry them in the sun. It is said that their interest in this fruit would come from that, possessing many varieties of pasta, but few sauces to combine them with, they finally found there subject to infinite variations. The quintessence of Italian cuisine could finally be expressed in all its brilliance, the pasta having found their perfect guarantor.

Much later, when, in successive waves, the Italians left their country for America, they brought with them their culinary traditions. They made their recipes known to North Americans, just as wary of the tomato as their English ancestors were. Indeed, the latter recommended that it be boiled for three hours to eliminate the toxic principles. Until the turn of the twentieth century, the average American continued to believe that it was poisonous. Against the current, Thomas Jefferson, a keen gardener, cook and politician, cultivated it and made canned food. This rule was also an exception to the people of Louisiana, who, under the influence of the French, would integrate it into their kitchen around 1810-1820. The same thing happened in China, where it was only adopted in the twentieth century, although it was introduced three centuries ago.

The tomato was the last to come on the list of foods of global commercial importance. A victim of her success, in the second half of the twentieth century, she lost the organoleptic qualities that had previously characterized her in order to meet the demands of industrial production. However, for the past ten years, collectors and gourmets have been looking to find and reproduce old varieties and to offer these seeds, seedlings or fruit to an amateur audience.

Tomato health profile

The benefits of tomatoes

Prostate cancer. Prostate cancer is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers among men in Canada. Several studies have shown that frequent or regular consumption of tomato-derived products may have a protective effect on prostate cancer. The compounds present in tomato products would increase the resistance of cells to oxidation and thus would be expected to develop this type of cancer. According to the results of a meta-analysis, the largest consumers of tomatoes and its derivatives would decrease by 10% to 20% their risk of developing prostate cancer compared to men who consume little. Other studies, however, did not show conclusive results, the prevention of prostate cancer by tomato consumption would only be observed in those most at risk of this type of cancer.

Other cancers. According to some 20 studies, high consumption of tomatoes or a predominant antioxidant in tomato (lycopene) would be related to a lower incidence of lung and stomach cancer. The consumption of tomatoes and lycopene may also have a protective effect on the incidence of pancreatic, colon, rectum, esophagus, oral cavity, breast and cervix cancers. However, studies are required to define the role of lycopene in the prevention of different types of cancer, as well as other compounds in the tomato, such as carotenoids.

Cardiovascular diseases. A large-scale study of women showed the more tomato-based products they consumed, the more they would reduce their risk of cardiovascular disease. Tomato derivatives, consumed daily, would decrease the oxidation of lipids in the blood (e.g. LDL-cholesterol or “bad” cholesterol), thus reducing the incidence of coronary artery disease. According to another study, tomato extracts and various tomato-based products would reduce platelet aggregation and therefore the formation of blood clots that could block the arteries. In addition, high blood levels of lycopene, an abundant compound in the tomato, would be associated with a lower incidence of cardiovascular disease. The results of these studies show that the cardiovascular protection of the tomato could be ensured not only by lycopene, but also by other antioxidant compounds and vitamins, which would act synergistically.

What does the tomato contain?

Antioxidants

The tomato contains antioxidants, mainly carotenoids, the most abundant of which is lycopene, a pigment giving its bright red color. The antioxidant activity of the tomato is also ensured by different phenolic compounds. The antioxidant compounds contained in fruits and vegetables protect the body cells from the damage caused by free radicals and prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to aging.

Lycopene is found in particularly high concentrations in the tissues of the prostate. According to several studies, this compound would help prevent prostate cancer, especially since high levels of lycopene in the blood have been associated with lower incidences of this type of cancer. However, the intake of lycopene supplements was not associated with the same effects in the body. The researchers assume lycopene would not be the only compound responsible for these effects. It would act synergistically with other compounds present in the tomato, including other carotenoids.

Tomatoes and tomato-based products are the main sources of lycopene in the North American diet, providing 85% of this carotenoid. In addition to its important antioxidant action, the tomato would have lowering and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as the ability to prevent the proliferation of certain types of cancer cells. Although the current data are not sufficient to recommend daily intake of lycopene, studies indicate that consumption of more than 6 mg of lycopene per day (about 2 raw tomatoes or ½ glass of tomato juice) may result in beneficial effects.

Tomatoes and tomato-derived products contain different amounts of lycopene depending on the processing process they underwent (cooking, grinding, homogenization, etc.). The bioavailability of lycopene, its absorption into the body, increases when lycopene changes structure or when it is released from the cells containing it. The consumption of tomato-based products significantly increases the concentration of lycopene in the blood.

For example, it would be necessary to consume 3 to 13 times more fresh tomatoes than juice or tomato paste to increase the blood levels of lycopene in an equivalent way. Cutting fresh tomatoes into small pieces and consuming them with a source of fat would have the effect of improving the absorption of this carotenoid in the blood. It should be noted that the absorption capacity of lycopene in the body differs from one individual to another.

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authorized the use of an expression evoking the potential effects of tomato and tomato sauce to prevent prostate cancer. This claim, on the labels of certain food products, indicating consumption of 1/2 to 1 cup (125 to 250 ml) of tomatoes or tomato sauce per week may reduce the risk of prostate cancer. It must be accompanied by the following statement: “The FDA concludes that there is little scientific evidence to support this allegation.” Such a claim is currently not allowed in Canada.

Lycopene: the food or the supplement?

The tomato contains several essential nutrients (antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, fibers) that exert different health effects. These active compounds act synergistically. Lycopene supplements do not provide the same beneficial effects and are not yet well demonstrated among humans. The consumption of vegetables and fruit, including tomatoes, remains the best way to avail themselves of the benefits attributed to them. Several prospective and epidemiological studies have shown high consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, certain cancers and other chronic diseases.

Tomato in different forms

Tomato-derived products are interesting sources of lycopene, in a form which is particularly well absorbed in the body. But be careful. These products contain high amounts of sodium in comparison with the fresh tomato. For example, a 15 ml (1 tbsp.) serving of tomato sauce and ketchup provides 80 mg and 170 mg of sodium, respectively. This represents 3% to 7% of the maximum sodium intake recommended each day. These foods should therefore be consumed in moderation, as part of a balanced diet, which includes 7 to 10 servings of fruits and vegetables per day for an adult.

Precautions

Tomato hypersensitivity

People allergic to latex can demonstrate hypersensitivity to tomato, as well as other foods (such as kiwi, banana, peach, pepper). The reactions are diverse, from urticaria to anaphylactic reactions. Given the potential severity of the reactions, very special attention must be paid at the time of consumption of these foods in people already sensitized to latex allergens. It is recommended to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to certain foods and to better understand the precautions to be taken.

The disorders of the esophagus

It’s recommended for people who suffer from gastric or esophageal problems (gastro-esophageal reflux, peptic esophagitis or symptomatic hernia hernia) to pay special attention to the consumption of tomatoes or tomato juice. It’s possible that consumption of these foods causes varices pain.

Oral allergy syndrome

The tomato is one of the foods that can be implicated in the oral allergy syndrome. This syndrome is an allergic reaction to certain proteins of a range of fruits, vegetables and nuts. It affects some people with allergies to environmental pollen and is almost always preceded by hay fever. Thus, when some people allergic to ragweed consume raw tomato (cooking usually degrades allergen proteins), an immunological reaction may occur. These people have itching and burning sensations that are confined to the mouth, lips and throat. Symptoms may appear, then disappear, usually a few minutes after consuming or touching the food being implicated. In the absence of other symptoms, this reaction is not serious and the consumption of tomato does not have to be avoided systematically. It is recommended, however, to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to plant foods. The latter will be able to assess whether special precautions should be taken.

Choice and conservation

Choose

The best tomatoes are in season, preferably in the public market, or even at a producer. Look for old varieties, often less beautiful, but generally more tasty.

Do not confuse immature green tomato and mature green tomato. In the first case, it is a tomato that will turn red, orange or yellow when it reaches maturity; in the second, a fruit that remains green at maturity. Both are consumed, but the first is cooked or marinated, while the second, sweeter, can be eaten fresh.

Keep

Keep tomatoes preferably out of the refrigerator. Their flavor and texture deteriorate when exposed to temperatures below 15 ºc. Put tomatoes that are not perfectly ripe to ripen in a paper bag or in a compotier.

Freezer. Freeze the whole tomatoes on a plate. Once frozen, put them in freezer bags. Or, make them whiten, peel them and let them drain for an hour or two before freezing them.

Organic gardening

Sow in a tray within four to six weeks before the last anticipated frost. During germination, make sure the temperature is between 21 and 26 ºC.

Before putting them in the ground, harden the plants by going out each day and gradually increasing the duration of their stay outside (a process that should last two weeks).

Transplant in a sunny and protected area of the wind. Space the plants from 45 to 60 cm in the row and at 1 m between the rows.

Soil pH: between 6.5 and 6.7.

Protect the plants if the night temperatures fall below 15 ºC.

Irrigation: 2.5 to 5 cm per week.

Prune by eliminating the greedy, these buds that grow on the undetermined plants.

To avoid the risk of disease, rotate for three or four years by not forgetting that the potato, eggplant, pepper and pepper are part of the same family and are susceptible to the same diseases.

If frost threatens, harvest all the green tomatoes and put them to ripen inside, or remove the whole plant and hang it in a protected area. The cracking of the fruit is due to genetic factors, irregular watering or too severe a size. Choose resistant varieties, irrigate regularly, mulch and, on undetermined plants, retain two main stems rather than one.

The apical rot is warned by ensuring that the PH is fairly high and the irrigation is regular.

Ecology and environment

The popularity of the tomato requires increasingly important growing surfaces. It is even grown in desert areas, where the loss of water by evaporation is very important. In some areas, a portion of the water normally destined for the local populations, already unspoiled in this regard, must be diverted to irrigate the tomato fields.

In order to cultivate them in the desert areas on the edge of the ocean, scientists from the United States have developed varieties of tomato that can be irrigated with salt water. But this solution worries: the irrigation of the land by sea water may increase the salt deposits in the soil of these regions, while it is precisely because of the salt that it has been made sterile.

On the other hand, some agri-food multinationals are working on the creation of a drought-resistant transgenic tomato. These experiments also raise controversy.

Tomato: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

The salsify, as it is known with its black skin, is actually a scorzonera, a perennial plant whose root resembles the salsify on the taste plane, the skin of the latter being of ivory color. These two plants belong to the same family (Asteraceae) but have two different botanical genera: the true salsify belongs to the genus Tragopogon Porrifolius and the Scorzonera, said black salsify, to the genus Scorzonera Hispanica. From the sixteenth century, the culture of the Scorzonera supplanted that of the salsify judged less tasty, more fibrous and less productive. So it is the black salsify that is most often found on market stalls and canned.

History of the salsify

The history of these two plants, which originated in southern Europe or the eastern Mediterranean basin, is not well known. The Greeks and Romans knew them, but regarded them as medicinal plants rather than vegetables. It seems that for a long time they were harvested in the wild before appearing late (around the 15th or 16th centuries) in the gardens of southern Europe.

By the end of the sixteenth century, the salsify gradually lost its popularity to the scorzonera, more productive, more tasty, less fibrous and easier to peel. The term “salsify” nevertheless has a hard life since it is still used in many places to designate its black-skinned cousin.

Little agricultural land was spent on the culture of either of these two roots. Gardeners felt they occupy the precious soil of their vegetable garden too long, which could be used better. In addition, they are difficult to harvest. It is necessary to dig the ground deep at the fork spades while being careful not to damage them, and when failing they oxidize quickly. As for the gourmets, they are divided: some hate them, the others like them.

However, with the resurgence of popularity of “forgotten vegetables”, the situation could change, especially if we can select varieties that are better suited to the kind of agriculture which is being practiced today. Especially since the salsify and the scorzonera stand out from other root vegetables by their inulin content. Moreover, they are harvested during the hollow periods, either from November to February in the Mediterranean countries, or early in the spring under the more rigorous climates of the Nordic countries. So they arrive on the market when the other winter vegetables become rarer or begin to wither.

Despite this, the bulk of commercial production is now destined for processing (canning, freezing). The main producing countries are Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Poland and the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States (former Soviet republics). It is also produced in Chile and India.

Health profile of salsify and scorzonera

Salsify and scorzonera are root vegetables with slightly sweet flavour. The peel of the salsify is white, the skin of the scorzonera is black. Their flesh contains inulin, which would contribute to the health of the intestines and the proper functioning of the immune system.

The benefits of salsify and scorzonera

Cancer. Studies among animals show that inulin, a type of carbohydrate present in the salsify and scorzonera, may have a protective effect against certain cancers, especially those of the intestine and breast. Experimental studies tend to show that inulin would play a role in reducing the risk of colorectal cancer among humans. However, the preventive effects on this type of cancer will need to be demonstrated using forward-looking studies conducted over the longer term.

General health. Salsify is an interesting source of dietary fiber. A fiber-rich diet, in addition to preventing constipation and reducing the risk of colon cancer, can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease, as well as to the control of type 2 diabetes and appetite.

Blood lipids. Inulin, a sugar contained in salsify and scorzonera, could have a beneficial effect on the control of blood lipids (including cholesterol) and positively influence the balance of individuals with hyperlipidemia. However, these studies were not specifically conducted on salsify and scorzonera.

What does salsify and scorzonera contain?

Inulin

Salsify and scorzonera contain inulin, an undigestible sugar of the fructans family. The salsify contains less inulin (between 4 G and 11 g per 100 g of fresh produce) than other foods such as chicory (40 g/100 g) or Jerusalem (20 g/100 g). But it is still an important source, especially since the North American diet includes very little inulin (2.6 g per 1 000 calories).

Inulin is called a prebiotic, i.e. it is not digested or absorbed by the small intestine, but fermented by the bacterial flora of the large intestine. Thanks to inulin, beneficial intestinal bacteria, such as bifidobacteria, can develop and effectively play their favorable roles in terms of intestinal health, immune system and the absorption of several nutrients. Some studies have also shown a beneficial effect of inulin on the control of blood lipids.

Phenolic compounds

The phytochemical profile of salsify and scorzonera was poorly studied, but would contain substances with an antioxidant potential, including quercetin. One study showed that salsify contained phenolic compounds that would prevent the formation of free radicals. The latter would be involved in the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to aging. In a context of food diversity, it would be desirable for more research to be directed towards the identification of bioactive molecules of lesser known vegetables, such as salsify and scorzonera.

Fiber

Salsify is considered to be a source of fiber as it contains more than 2 g per serving of 125 ml (1/2 Cup). Food fibers, which are found only in plants, group together a set of substances that are not digested by the body. It is recommended to consume 25 g of fiber per day for women aged 19 to 50 years, and 38 g per day for men of the same age group.

Salad leaves

The leaves of salsify and scorzonera are edible, especially young spring shoots. We know very little about their nutritional value. However, it may be thought they provide several vitamins and minerals, since they are leafy greens, such as spinach and chard.

Precautions

Insulin allergy

Isolated cases of insulin allergy have been reported in the scientific literature. Inulin is found in many plants. It’s also found in the form of an ingredient in several processed foods. The food industry uses inulin to replace fats and to provide a creamy texture to different products, including frozen desserts, gravies and fruit preparations. The consumption of salsify and artichoke, naturally containing inulin, was associated with an allergic reaction of the anaphylactic type. This type of reaction is characterized by skin signs (hives, edema …) and severe respiratory disorders. It should be noted the allergy cases listed are very rare. This information can still be useful to people already allergic to artichokes, Jerusalem or chicory, foods rich in inulin.

Choice and conservation

Choose

Salsify or scorzonera is not easily found in northern countries grocery stores. They can be found occasionally in grocery stores or markets frequented by Europeans. Choose the roots well firm, rather fine than large. If not, you can find them in canned products.

Keep

Refrigerator. The roots packed in a paper towel keep 4 or 5 days.

Freezer. Peel them, blanch them for a few minutes and freeze.

Organic gardening

The germ power of salsify and scorzonera seeds is short-lived, it is better to buy new seeds each year or to keep the seeds more than 1 year in the freezer.

Sow in the spring or early summer in a light land, and without pebbles (which fork the root). Make sure they benefit from good sunshine. Space the rows by 25 cm and lighten the seedlings to 10 cm.

Avoid the fresh manure that also makes the root fork. It’s better to apply it the previous fall or use well decomposed compost.

Weed, hoe and water frequently.

If a floral stem is formed, cut it close to the crown.

Harvest the roots late in the fall, after they have had some good frost or very early in the spring of the following year.

Salsify: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

The arugula or rocket salad is a plant that belongs to the family of the Cruciferae like turnips and radishes. Its leaves are narrow, serrated and of a fairly dark green. The arugula has a slightly peppery and bitter characteristic taste. It is often found in the salad assortment.

History of the arugula

Under the name of arugula, there are some species of plants in the family of Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) that are characterized by an astonishing flavour of “mustard hazelnut”. The seeds, for that matter, are used for the preparation of strong mustard. From 10 cm to 20 cm long, the leaves are narrow and, in some species, the ledge is jagged, like dandelion leaves, but more rounded. From the Mediterranean basin, the arugula’s quickly spread eastward to India. They have been consumed since the high antiquity, and perhaps before, by the various people who have lived in these regions.

Aphrodisiac, stimulant and medicinal properties

The Egyptians, the Greeks and the Romans attributed to the arugula many medicinal virtues, including that of being an aphrodisiac. In antiquity, it was devoted to Priapus, God of gardens, of fertility and reproduction whose emblem was the phallus. It was planted at the foot of its statue and was recommended to husbands to consume its raw leaves and seeds. This reputation did not escape the religious authorities who, in the Middle Ages, forbade to cultivate it in the gardens of monasteries.

This ban has more or less been extended to the general population, so for a long time Europeans have only used it in a marginal way in their diet. As for the reputation of aphrodisiac, it was not scientifically proven.

A vegetable more and more appreciated

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its popularity has grown steadily, particularly in the south of France and in Italy, where it is being prepared in many ways. It also makes its way on the tables of North America, especially among healthy eating and gourmets. The temperate climate of this continent is particularly well suited to the point it spontaneously reproduces in several places.

In India, where it produces the most, it’s cultivated mainly for its seeds, from which one draws an oil serving meals and for various industrial uses: soap making, lubricant, lighting oil, massage oil, component of medicinal mixtures. Cakes (seed residues after oil extraction) are fed to livestock or processed into compost. The seeds are also used as seasoning in marinades.

Arugula health profile

The arugula leaves have a slightly spicy taste and add to the flavor of salads, soups and sauces. Like several other Brassicaceae, the arugula contains various compounds that would have anti-cancer effects. Its seeds are edible and serve as a condiment.

The benefits of arugula

Several epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease, some cancers and other chronic diseases. The presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in this protection.

What does the arugula contain?

Flavonoids

The leaves and seeds of the arugula contain flavonoids, especially quercetin. Their exact concentration is not known, because few studies have been done about them. However, the consumption of quercetin-containing foods would be associated with a decrease in the risk of cancer due to its antioxidant properties.

Carotenoids

The arugula also contains small amounts of lutein and beta-carotene, two types of carotenoids. Compared to different lettuces (hydroponically grown), the arugula would contain 2 to 5 times more lutein and up to 3 times more beta-carotene. Since carotenoids also possess antioxidant properties, the consumption of food containing them would also be linked to a lesser risk of suffering from certain cancers.

Glucosinolates

The arugula, like the majority of the vegetables of the family of Brassicaceae (Brassicas) of which it belongs (broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, radish, etc.), contains glucosinolates. Seeds and sprouts of arugula would contain more glucosinolates than leaves. However, studies of the quantities of arugula glucosinolates are limited. Glucosinolates have the ability to transform into active molecules (isothiocyanates) when the food containing it is chopped, chewed or in contact with the intestinal bacterial flora. Many of these molecules would help to limit the development of cancer.

Choice and conservation

Choose

For salads, choose the bouquets of small leaves that are very fresh, tender and narrow. More fibrous, the leaves of the older plants will be used instead in cooking. If necessary, remove the large ribs before preparing them. In any case, the leaves should be green, spotless and without soft parts.

Keep

Refrigerator. A few days in a perforated bag placed in the crisper.

Freezer. Blanch the leaves, let them cool, drain and put them in a freezer bag.

Organic gardening

Sow early in the spring in a well-drained soil. You will be able to make seedlings throughout the summer, but excessive heat makes the leaf harder and more fibrous and induce the plant to producing seeds. Therefore, during the hot summer months, harvest the leaves when they are very young, which will stimulate the production of new leaves, also tender. Also, protect against heat with a shade.

Soil PH: 6.0 to 7.0.

The space between the plants will be 15 cm to 18 cm, and the spacing between the rows from 30 cm to 40 cm.

Fertilization: Fatten manure or compost preferably in the fall before sowing. Moderation should be exercised in the use of nitrogen which tends to accumulate in the leaves in the form of nitrates. It is recommended to harvest late in the afternoon, while the content of the nitrate leaves is much lower.

Irrigation: Although the rocket is well adapted to climates and dry soils, irrigation has the effect of preserving the tenderness of the leaves, while the drought makes them fibrous.
In hot and dry years, the cabbage flea beetle can cause severe damage to the leaves, piercing countless small holes. In the spring and fall, plants can be protected with a lightweight agricultural textile. In the summer, it will be necessary to resort to another solution because this textile increases the temperature in the immediate environment of the plants. Insecticidal soap treatments will alleviate the problem without necessarily settling it completely. One can also accept to consume the leaves with their holes, the problem being strictly aesthetic.

It can be harvested until late in the fall if the plants are protected with a textile for agricultural purposes designed to limit the effects of cold and wind. Depending on the species, you can harvest from 2 to 5 times on the same plant at intervals of 10 to 30 days.

Ecology and environment

In the arid regions of northern India, arugula is one of the few plants which can be cultivated during ungrateful winters. Indeed, it has good resistance to biotic stresses (caused by living organisms) or abiotic (caused by the chemical or physical factors influencing living things). Its roots are able to quickly penetrate the soil in search of the water that lies in the deeper layers.

In the desert regions of the Middle East, it is an excellent honey plant (the nectar of which is collected by bees), as well as food for camels and sheep.

Finally, it was found to be extremely useful in combating nematodes that attack tomato, pepper, zucchini and cucumber plants. In organic farming, it is therefore preceded by these cultures in the rotation cycle.

Arugula (rocket salad): nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

Rhubarb is a vegetable plant with imposing leaves in the centre of a thick, fleshy rib. Only this one must be consumed, the leaves very rich in oxalic acid can be the cause of poisoning. If the latter are still green, the ribs, of a length of 50 cm and the width of which varies between 3 and 7 cm, are red or green, depending on the varieties, and more or less acidic. Although it’s a vegetable, rhubarb is most often used sweet, as a fruit.

History of rhubarb

The term “rhubarb” is a deformation of the Latin rheubarbarum, itself derived from Rheum barbarum. Rheum was borrowed from the Greek Rha, which used to designate the Volga, on the banks of which the plant spontaneously grew. The expression Rheum Barbarum therefore meant “barbarian plant of the Volga”. Other authors believe the name comes from the Greek rheon, meaning “flowing”, referring to the purgative properties of the root. “Rhubarb” appeared in its present form at the end of the sixteenth century, but from the 13th century, the word “Reubarbe” was used.

The majority of the ten listed rhubarb species, including the one we grow in our gardens, come from China, Siberia, Mongolia and Russia. The use of rhubarb would be 2 700 years before our era, in China, where the medicinal properties of its root were taken. At the beginning of our era, the plant would have spread to western Europe, where it was also used for medicinal purposes. Its first food uses only date from the seventeenth century. It was reportedly introduced to North America in the early nineteenth century and was mainly used for making pies. This culinary tradition came from the Anglo-Saxon, who colloquially gave the rhubarb the name of pieplant (tart plant).

Rhubarb is now cultivated in many countries where the climate is relatively fresh. In areas where winters are not too rigorous, harvesting in the field lasts about 2 months. Some of the plants can be transplanted into the cellar in the fall in order to prolong the production.

With the rods, we make wine and, more recently, beers of micro-brewery. There is also an aroma for chefs. In Europe, the leaves are used to wrap cheeses and butter, and the root is given to pigs.

Rhubarb health profile

Rhubarb, with its highly tangy taste, would be better suited to salty dishes, although traditionally it is usually eaten as a dessert. Its high fiber content makes it a food of choice to maintain a good balance of blood lipids.

The benefits of rhubarb

Blood lipids. A study among patients with atherosclerosis (therefore at high risk for cardiovascular disease) showed regular consumption of rhubarb decreased total cholesterol and “bad” cholesterol (LDL). Another study showed daily consumption of rhubarb (bleached and then dried) could help to reduce total cholesterol and “bad” cholesterol (LDL) without harming the concentrations of “good” cholesterol (HDL). This work has been done with men with high blood cholesterol. The observed effect may be due in part to the soluble fibers present in rhubarb.

In animals, the addition of rhubarb fibers to a cholesterol-enriched diet resulted in a decrease in blood cholesterol. Rhubarb fibers, in particular insoluble fibers, would have the ability to bind to bile acids, favoring the excretion and absorption of fats.

Several prospective and epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other chronic diseases. The presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in these effects.

What does rhubarb contain?

Fiber

The rhubarb stalk, which is the edible part of the plant, represents an important source of dietary fiber. The majority of its dry weight (74%) consists of fibers. Of these, insoluble fibers are 8 times more abundant than soluble fibers. Taking into account the dry matter, the rhubarb stem contains 5 times more total fibers than oat flakes (oatmeal) and roughly the same amount of soluble fiber. Soluble fibers (pectin, psyllium …) are recognized for their ability to decrease blood cholesterol while insoluble fibers (lignin, cellulose …) would help regulate intestinal function. Although rhubarb contains mostly insoluble fibers, some studies, both among humans and animals, have demonstrated the efficacy of rhubarb fibers in reducing blood lipids.

Antioxidants

Rhubarb contains several compounds having demonstrated antioxidant activity, including polyphenols. Further research will be needed to determine the extent to which the consumption of rhubarb would be specifically beneficial to humans.

Oxalic acid

Oxalic acid (or oxalate) is a naturally occurring compound found in products of plant origin. This type of acid is known to bind to minerals such as calcium and magnesium. This could affect their absorption by the body. Although the rhubarb stem is rich in oxalic acid, it is not necessary to limit its consumption. Indeed, a study conducted among animals concluded the oxalate present in the rhubarb stem did not interfere with the calcium bioavailability of the food. In addition, in North America, as the consumption of rhubarb is rather marginal, its effect on mineral absorption probably has little impact on health.

Precautions

Diet without oxalate. People at risk of lithiasis oxalocalciques (stones in kidney constituted of oxalate and calcium) should limit their consumption of foods rich in oxalate. Rhubarb is one of 8 foods having shown a capacity to increase oxalurie. It is therefore recommended for these people to avoid consuming them in order to prevent the formation of urinary lithiasis (or kidney stones).

Choice and conservation

Choose

Choose strong stems. When spliced, they should exude a dense sap.

Keep

Refrigerator. One or two weeks in a plastic bag.

Freezer. Cut the rhubarb into sections and freeze it or after you have briefly bleached it.

Organic gardening

You can grow rhubarb by using seeds. However, it is preferable to purchase plant varieties having been selected for their organoleptic qualities and for their resistance to seeding. There are varieties with green, pink or red stalks. Gardeners and cooks generally prefer the latter, which are tastier.

Plant rhubarb in a nice corner in the garden, as it is a perennial plant that will produce for many years. Choose a place where the soil drips well to avoid the risk of crown rot or, if not, prepare an elevated border. Fill the planting hole with decomposed manure or compost. Space the plants 1 m to 1.5 m.

Water in case of drought and mulch plants. Do not harvest stems in the year of seeding and, in the 2nd year, harvest only for 1-2 weeks. Then you can harvest for 8 to 10 weeks, taking only one-third of the stems at a time. This will allow plants to continue their photosynthesis process and remain well robust. It is possible to make a second harvest in the fall on the plants you intend to eliminate the following year.

Cut the floral stems as soon as they appear throughout the season.

Each year, in late fall or early spring, add a layer of manure or compost near the base of the plants.

Divide the seedlings after 5 or 6 years by cutting the roots into 7 or 8 pieces, each with at least 1 bud. If possible, set up these new plants in a different place in the garden.

To avoid attracting the rhubarb weevil, eliminate the kinky patience, a wild rhubarb-like plant, which serves as a host. To reduce the risk of illness, remove the leaves in the fall when they have turned yellow.

Extend production

Rhubarb plants can be forced into the cellar at a temperature of 10 °C to 13 °C. In the fall, take out the plants by leaving them a small clod of land and leave them on the ground so they will freeze for a few days or even weeks. Then put them in large pots or crates of wood and fill with soil or peat moss. It’s important to protect them from the light by ensuring the room is in full darkness or by covering them with black plastic. The first stems should appear five or six weeks later. We harvest them like we do in the garden. We can then keep the seedlings fresh, but sheltered from freezing, then retransplant them to the garden the following spring.

Ecology and environment

A natural insecticide

In organic farming, rhubarb leaves are used to make a particularly effective insecticide against aphids. We prepare an infusion in which we dilute a little soap and water the plants.

In the Morley region of England, the cultivation of rhubarb is a tradition that has been passed down from generation to generation since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Each year, we produce nearly a thousand tons for the sale in fresh market, for the freezing or for the manufacture of the famous English rhubarb jam. Global warming is a real threat to this culture. The plant needs a long period of cold before producing its stems. But over the last few years, the winter’s clemency has had the effect of delaying the harvest for several weeks. The production season is reduced as well as the harvest.

Rhubarb: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

The pink radish is a white-fleshed root vegetable whose skin color and shape can change. Some varieties have a round root, others an elongated root with colors ranging from pinkish white to scarlet red. This subtly pungent vegetable can be consumed raw and cooked. Radish fanes are edible and offer multiple culinary possibilities.

History of radish

Although its origin remains somewhat obscure, it’s thought the radish comes from the Middle East or Southwest Asia. It would have been domesticated thousands of years ago before spreading to the rest of Asia and Europe. This vegetable was already known in Egypt before the pyramids were built more than 5 000 years ago. It’s possible, however, that it was grown mainly for its seeds, which produce a quality edible oil. The Greeks and Romans enjoyed it and cultivated several varieties. In the Middle Ages and in the Renaissance, it was the most common root vegetable in northern Europe and England, especially since it was thought to have many medicinal properties. However, people had to wait until the eighteenth century before the small round and red radishes which we know today appear. The radishes commonly eaten were generally white or black, much larger and elongate in shape.

The radish was introduced to America in the early years of colonization and has never lost its popularity since. However, we consume much less than our ancestors and the choice of varieties is now relatively small. In the nineteenth century, in the gardens of Canada and the United States, black radish, daikon and various types of Chinese radish were grown. A variety of “Madras radishes” was also grown, which has the characteristic of rapidly rising into seeds and forming edible pods. Farmers also produced a yellow-fleshed radish, which is no longer traced today, as well as a very large forage radish that was fed to livestock.

In contrast, radish has never ceased to play an important role in the diet of Japanese, Chinese and Koreans. They prepare it in all sorts of ways, in particular by marinating it in salt or miso, which allows to prolong its conservation. In Japan, radish alone accounts for almost a third of all vegetable production.

In China, some radish varieties are also grown for their seeds, which are extracted from oil, while in the Middle East, others are exclusively for their leaves, which are prepared as spinach.

Radish health profile

The radish, whether red, black or white (daikon) is a crisp, refreshing, slightly spicy vegetable. Its leaves are also edible. Like most of the crucifers, it contains antioxidants and bioactive compounds protecting against certain cancers.

The benefits of radish

Several epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease, some cancers and other chronic diseases. The presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in this protection.

Cancer. Several studies have shown that regular consumption of the Brassica family’s vegetables (e.g. radish, turnip, cabbage, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli) may prevent certain cancers, such as those of the lung, ovaries and kidneys (for women).

Active compounds contained in white radish (isothiocyanates) demonstrated antimutagenic properties in vitro, which would have a role to play in the prevention of cancer. Several antioxidants contained in radishes, including anthocyanins and kaempferol, would provide protection against cancer by decreasing the formation of tumors among animals and the growth of cancer cells in vitro. Researchers have also demonstrated that black radish antioxidants have an effect on the lipids of the intestinal cells and contribute to the prevention of colon cancer.

Cardiovascular health. Daily consumption of Brassica vegetables would be associated with a lower blood concentration of homocysteine, which would reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. A study among animals indicated compounds from white radish (isothiocyanates) decreased the growth of vascular cells, whose development is associated with certain cardiovascular diseases. Some radish antioxidants may decrease cholesterol, triglycerides and blood glucose would also protect against the oxidation of blood lipids in animals.

Digestive system. Several studies among animals have shown that root and radish leaves contain substances that may accentuate intestinal motility.

Memory. A study conducted among older women concluded consumption of brassicas would slow down cognitive decline.

What does the radish contain?

Antioxidants

Radish contains different types of antioxidants, compounds protecting body cells from damage caused by free radicals and preventing the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to aging.

The red radish contains anthocyanins, mainly pelargodinines, while the white radishes contain kaempferol (a flavonol). The different varieties of radish also contain peroxidase, an antioxidant enzyme. These compounds have demonstrated in vitro and among animals promising effects for the prevention of cancer, but other studies are necessary to determine whether the effects would be similar among humans.

Glucosinolates

Like the majority of the brassica vegetables, the radish contains glucosinolates. Radish glucosinolates have the ability to transform into active molecules (isothiocyanates) when the food containing it is chopped, chewed or in contact with the intestinal bacterial flora. However, the cooking of the brassica vegetables results in a loss of glucosinolates in the cooking water.

The black radish would contain two to five times more glucosinolates than some red or white radishes. Many of these molecules would help to limit the development of certain cancers. However, other studies must be conducted to verify whether these properties apply to humans.

Brassicas and thyroid cancer: a link between the two?

The crucifers naturally contain thioglucosides, substances which would have a connection with thyroid gland cancer among animals. However, a meta-analysis of studies from many countries, involving more than 5 000 people, showed that high consumption of brassicas was not associated with greater risk of thyroid cancer among humans.

Precaution

Irritable bowel syndrome

Some people with irritable bowel syndrome may feel, in varying degrees, intolerance towards the crucifers, such as radishes. Limiting or avoiding fermentable foods such as those in the Brassica family may alleviate symptoms (abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea) among people with this syndrome. When the symptoms are mild, or during periods of “remission”, it’s sometimes possible to gradually reintegrate these foods, always respecting individual tolerance.

Interaction between the crucifers and certain medications.

Indoles, naturally occurring compounds in the brassica vegetables, can notably reduce the action of some analgesics such as products containing acetaminophen (Tylenol, Atasol, Tempur, etc.) and other medications combining a mixture of active ingredients (Benylin, Robaxacet, etc.). People who consume a large amount of Brassica vegetables must take this aspect into consideration.

Choice and conservation

Choose

Choose firm, smooth roots and a beautiful shiny color. The leaves must be very green. To avoid unpleasant surprises, press the flesh with your thumb; if it yields pressure, the radish is probably hollow and fibrous.

The red and black radishes are easily found in the trade. The other types, including the snake radishes, are rarer: go to Asian grocery stores, which also offer radishes marinated in salt or miso.

Keep

Refrigerator. Four to seven days in a plastic bag or container filled with cold water. Keep fanes separately in the refrigerator, if you wish to consume them; the radish will keep them longer. Asian radishes and black radishes can be stored for a few weeks or even months in a perforated plastic bag.

Organic gardening

By sowing various varieties of radish, it can be consumed for a good part of the year. Very early in the spring, we sow the small red radishes of round shape, then a little later, the “French” radish, more elongated, which resists better to the heat. In July and August, the varieties of long conservation are sown: black, daikon, red or green Chinese.

To reduce the risk of illness, practice a rotation of four years (cabbages and turnips are of the same family and should therefore be taken into account in the rotation).

The soil must drain well, be hoed in depth, especially for elongated radishes, and have been enriched with manure or compost the previous fall.

PH: 6.5 to 7. It is important that the PH is quite high, especially if the cabbage hernia is present in the vegetable garden.

Lighten so that the distance between the plants is 2.5 cm to 12 cm or 15 cm, depending on the variety.

It is essential to irrigate the spring radishes in order to promote rapid growth and delay the run. In addition, radishes that grow too slowly are often hollow and excessively pungent.

If the frost threatens, cover the plants with a agrotextile. This type of cloth will also protect them against the larva of the turnip fly, which digs tunnels in the root and makes it unfit for consumption.

Spring radishes should be harvested preferably when they are small, otherwise the plant may rise into seeds and give woody and hollow roots. On the other hand, winter radishes remain tender even when they are very large; so they can stay in the land much longer. They will only be harvested when they are stored in the cellar or in the refrigerator.

Ecology and environment

A study published in 2002 by researchers at the University of Ohio indicates that the genetic traits of cultivated radish varieties can be transmitted to wild varieties and persist for at least six or more generations. Thus, genetically modified radish varieties to be resistant to diseases, insects or herbicides could transmit their characteristics to wild radish varieties. This would entail a real risk of making them virtually indestructible weeds, that is, neither insects, diseases, nor herbicides can overcome them.

The wild radish is one of the hundred plants considered to be the most damaging on the planet. In areas where the wild radish is already a problem for crops, this resistance could lead to considerable losses. One of the authors of the study therefore warns biotechnology companies against the temptation to develop genetically modified radish varieties that possess these traits.

Radish: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

The potato is a tuber produced by a vegetable plant that bears the same name. “Potatoe” in English, “potato” in Canadian, it’s grown on every continent of the planet, it’s the most consumed vegetable in the world.

The potatoes are on the markets all year round thanks to the many varieties which succeed from one season to the next but also to the storage with chemical inhibitors and germicides or after irradiation, processes neutralizing the germination. New potatoes or primers are harvested before their full maturity. This appellation is allowed from the beginning of the harvest (April, May) until 31 July and off-season for import potatoes.

History of the potato

The term “potato” originates from the Spanish, Arawak, an Indian language of Haiti. It first designated the sweet potato then, under the influence of the English potato, the potato. As for the name “potato”, it appeared in the middle of the seventeenth century and first designated the Jerusalem before referring to the nightshade.

The potato originates from the Peruvian and Colombian Andes, as well as from Chile. Its centre of genetic diversity extends from the tip of Argentina to the southwest of the United States. In this vast territory where all the climates are found, there are more than 200 wild species of Solanum, the Lake Titicaca region (Peru and Bolivia) being the richest reservoir. It’s probably in this region that it was domesticated 7 000 to 10 000 years ago, from 2 wild species.

The potato crossed the Atlantic to Europe around 1570, by 2 streams: one Spanish and the other English. For a long time, farmers were satisfied to cultivate the plant as a curiosity or for its beauty, refusing to consume its tuber. The authorities eventually recognized its very high productivity and nutritional properties. But they took time to convince people to adopt it as a food. It is the wars and famines that will encourage people to consume potatoes. The potato can be kept in the soil, which puts it relatively safe from looting and fires caused by marauding armies. On the other hand, in bad years it’s much more productive than cereals.

In fact, some researchers do not hesitate to attribute the demographic increase that led to the industrial revolution in its wake. First because, thanks to this vegetable, frequent famines had disappeared. Then, because its large-scale production had resulted in some over production. This had made it possible to feed an increased number of people, both in the countryside and in the cities, in addition to constituting excellent food for the livestock and poultry.

Today the potato is, after wheat, rice and maize, the most important crop on the planet. The establishment of the international potato Centre in Peru in the 1970 years helped to develop many varieties. Culture techniques adapted to various climates have been developed, particularly for the humid tropics of Africa and Asia. As a result, potatoes are now being grown in areas where it had not been possible to do so before. It represents, for the farmers of these countries, a significant income. Which still helps to improve their quality of life. Additionally, a very digestible food, rich in nutrients, is added to their menu.

On the other hand, in developed countries, the consumption of fresh potatoes continues to decrease for the benefit of food products made with potatoes. Chips and fries are much less nutritious and much fatter.

Potato health profile

In the oven, in puree or in salad, the potato is ready in many ways and it’s very digestible. It contains a lot of dietary fiber and a profusion of vitamins and minerals. Try the potatoes with blue or violet flesh, they are rich in antioxidants.

A few words on the potato

The potato contains much more starch (a carbohydrate) than most vegetables. This is why some nutritionists believe that it should be regarded as a starch, in the same category as bread and pasta. But the Canadian food guide ranks it among the fruits and vegetables. It also contains an impressive amount of vitamins and minerals, as well as other compounds with beneficial health effects. So it has its place in a varied and balanced diet. The potato is the most consumed vegetable in North America, but unfortunately too often in the form of fries.

The benefits of potato

Cardiovascular diseases. One study showed that, among healthy men, daily consumption of yellow-or purplish-fleshed potatoes reduced inflammation and oxidative stress. These two factors would contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Blood lipids. Studies indicate that resistant starch (a complex sugar) from potato flesh, added to the animal diet, would result in decreased cholesterol and blood triglycerides. Raw potato resistant starch, administered to rats, would also reduce the “bad” cholesterol (LDL) In addition to increasing intestinal fermentation and improve the absorption of some minerals. Possible clinical studies will assess whether similar results can be obtained among humans.

Several prospective and epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease, certain cancers and other chronic diseases. The presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in these effects.

Cooking would not greatly affect the antioxidant capacity of the potato. According to different studies, once cooked, it would retain up to half its contents in phenolic compounds (including phenolic acids and flavonoids) and even up to 97% in some cases.

What does the potato contain?

Antioxidants

The potato contains phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (catechins), as well as vitamin C5. These antioxidant compounds protect the body cells from damage caused by free radicals.

The content of phenolic compounds of the potato differs considerably according to the variety, the conditions of culture and climatic, as well as the methods of analysis used. For example, varieties of yellow-or purplish-fleshed potatoes would have more phenolic acids than white-fleshed potatoes. The potato peel would also be richer in phenolic acids than its flesh. Blue or purplish-fleshed varieties have more flavonoids than “traditional” potatoes and their consumption would increase the organism’s antioxidant capacity.

The more they are colorful, the more beneficial for health

There are now on the market potatoes whose flesh is of varying colour (blue or purple, yellow, red). These varieties are particularly interesting because of their exceptionally high antioxidant content. These can be flavonoids (anthocyanins) which gives them their particular color, lutein or zeanxanthine. The white potato would have a lower anti-cancer activity than many other vegetables, while the antioxidant capacity of red and purplish potatoes would be comparable to that of Brussels sprouts, spinach or kale. Some varieties under study could contain almost as many antioxidants as blueberries, recognized as the best source of antioxidants.

Resistant starch

The potato contains starch, a complex carbohydrate. A fraction of this starch is resistant starch. Like dietary fibers, resistant starch is not digested by human intestinal enzymes and is not absorbed by the small intestine. The raw potato contains more resistant starch than the one that has undergone a transformation and this quantity varies according to the different processes used. Boiled potatoes would contain about 2% resistant starch, 5% fried potatoes and 6% potato salad. These values are comparable to those of different cereal products (breakfast cereals, rice, pasta, etc.) and slightly lower than those of legumes. In addition, the amount of resistant starch contained in potatoes would increase when they are warmed and cooled.

Some researchers believe that resistant starch could help reduce the risk of colon cancer. However, contradictory results obtained among animals do not permit the conclusion of a protective effect of the resistant starch against the formation of colon tumors. The resistant starch would also have beneficial effects on the blood lipids.

Dietary fiber

The potato is an interesting source of fiber. For example, an baked potato provides approximately 10% of the recommended daily fibre inbring for adults aged 19 years to 50 years. Food fibers, found only in plants, group together a set of substances that are not digested by the body. In addition to preventing constipation and reducing the risk of colon cancer, a diet rich in fiber can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease, as well as to the control of type 2 diabetes and appetite.

Lectins

There are many varieties of lectins, proteins found in plants. According to several in vitro studies, the potato-specific lectin, called STL (Solanum Tuberosum Lectin), would have the ability to inhibit the growth of cancerous cells. However, other studies are needed to determine whether it can help prevent cancer among humans.

Precautions

Alkaloids (green color on potato)

The potatoes contain toxic compounds named alkaloids (Solanine and Chaconine), which provide protection against different pathogens found in the wild. Among humans, the consumption of alkaloids can be related to different symptoms (tingling sensation in the mouth, gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, bronchospasm, etc.). When consumed in large quantities, the alkaloids can lead to serious intoxications which can affect the central nervous system.

When their alkaloid content is high, potatoes may have green tints or green patches. The cooking does not destroy the alkaloids and their concentration increases when the potatoes are stored at high temperature or in the light. It is therefore important to keep them away from moisture and light, to remove the green patches or to discard the complete potatoes if there are too many of these stains.

Potato allergy

Cases of potato allergies (raw or cooked) have been reported, mainly among children. These allergies can cause various symptoms, more or less severe. The protein is responsible for these allergies. People who are allergic to latex can also be hypersensitive to potatoes (as well as other foods such as kiwi, banana and avocado) and vice versa. The reactions are diverse, from urticaria to anaphylactic reactions. Given the potential severity of the reactions, very special attention must be paid at the time of consumption of these foods among people already sensitized to latex allergens. It’s recommended to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to certain foods as well as the precautions to be taken. According to a study carried out among young children, allergy to baked potatoes would increase the risk of suffering from pollen allergy later in childhood.

Oral allergy syndrome

The potato is an incriminating food in the oral allergy syndrome. This syndrome is an allergic reaction to certain proteins of a range of fruits, vegetables and nuts. It affects some people with allergies to environmental pollen and is almost always preceded by hay fever. Thus, when some people allergic to ragweed consume raw potatoes (cooking usually degrades allergen proteins), an immunological reaction may occur. These people feel itching and burning sensations to the mouth, lips and throat. Symptoms may appear, then disappear, usually a few minutes after the food is consumed or a contact with it. In the absence of other symptoms, this reaction is not serious and the consumption of potatoes does not have to be avoided systematically. However, it is recommended to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to plant foods. The latter will be able to assess whether special precautions should be taken.

Selection and conservation

Choose

Preferably buy yellow, red or blue-fleshed varieties that are richer in nutrients than the white potato. It may be necessary to go to the market to find them, because they are still scarce in grocery stores.

Look for varieties with elongated small tubers, such as Ratte, German Fingerling, banana, comma potato, etc. Their taste is more delicate, and they can be served whole without overloading the plate.

Organic gardening

The ideal for potato culture is a rich land with a relatively low pH.

Many diseases affect this plant, the most devastating in tempered climates being downy mildew and scabies. The first, which was the cause of the Great Famine in Ireland from 1845 to 1849, is in resurgence. It’s a threat even in family gardens, which are generally better protected from disease.

To prevent downy mildew, it’s recommended to plant only healthy certified tubers from resistant varieties, to irrigate the soil by avoiding watering the foliage and to practice a rotation of 4 or 5 years (this also applies to tomatoes that are very vulnerable to disease). It’s also useful to properly butter the plants and to add a mulch to isolate the foliage of the tubers as much as possible. It’s recommended to make every week a foliar application of Bordeaux porridge, a fungicide accepted in organic agriculture. The severely affected seedlings should also be destroyed as well as the leaves of the plants having less effect by burying them deep as far away as possible from the garden.

The same protective measures apply to scabies. On the other hand, Bordeaux porridge is not treated and the soil is kept constantly moist during the first few weeks of tuber formation. Avoid any fertilizer or amendment that has the effect of alkaline soil: fresh manure, especially poultry manure, lime or ash. If necessary, lower the pH by incorporating sulphur on the soil the year before the crop.

Some varieties of potatoes are susceptible to cabbage rot. So it is better to keep them away from it in the garden.

To control the beetle, the main insect attacking the potato, it’s possible to cover the plants with a thin net fabric, which prevents the adult from landing and laying his eggs on the plants. In commercial culture, this technique is too costly, but for the family garden it is affordable and it’s the most environmentally friendly. Neem oil and rotenone (two plant insecticides) will be used only in case of absolute necessity, as they are not selective and destroy useful insects.

Ecology and environment

During the 250 years following the introduction of the potato in Europe, the varieties cultivated there came from an extremely small genetic variety. Some had predicted this potentially explosive situation, long before the Irish Famine. The lower the genetic diversity of the potato is, the higher the risk of attacks by diseases or insects. So it happened what had to happen: when downy mildew, a fungal disease, hit Europe after the United States, it did not encounter any resistance in this genetically uniform plant population.

Preserving biodiversity is therefore essential if we are to be able to combat diseases and insects, which are increasingly virulent, attacking the potato. Until recently, it was not uncommon to see the Amerindians cultivate on the same mound 5 different varieties. In addition, cultivated varieties were readily allowed to mingle with wild varieties or species growing near the fields. This allowed the creation of new cultivars, some of which, hopefully, could have a high natural resistance against one or the other of the potato’s enemies. Alas, this diversity is likely to continue to erode as some high-yielding cultivars are introduced today, which gradually replace the many less productive local varieties.

Potato: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

Pepper is a fruit used as a vegetable derived from the plant with the same name. This annual plant belongs to the Chili family, and grows only in temperate climates. This is a sweet variety that was obtained by selection. The fruit, which is a very large berry, has a smooth red or yellow skin, depending on the varieties, which surrounding a fine flesh, more or less voluminous, the pulp. It forms a kind of capsule where many flat seeds are contained.

History of pepper

According to vestiges found in a Tehuacan cave in Mexico, the chili has been domesticated for at least 7 000 years (9 000 according to some, which would make it the oldest cultivated plant in America).

When comparing the small cayenne pepper, considered as a spice, to the big pepper of the market, considered a vegetable, it’s hard to believe that they come from the same plant. This is the case, and the reason for the confusion sometimes exists between the terms “pepper” and “chili”. Originating from Bolivia and surrounding areas, from where it quickly spread throughout the area covering South America, Central America and Mexico, the chili has been the subject of an important selection work which has led to the many varieties we know today, and whose flavor goes from the very sweet to the very pungent.

On the return of his first trip to America, Columbus introduced chili pepper to Europe. The Spaniards, relayed by the Portuguese, spread it rapidly in the world, and it was adopted in many national cuisines. It’s not known when exactly the four-lobed pepper appeared in Europe, but it would have been mentioned the first time in 1699 by an Englishman named Wafer, pirate of his state, who would have seen it in Panama plants loaded with these big fruits.

Pepper health profile

Although it’s used as a vegetable, the pepper is actually the fruit of a plant. There are several varieties differing in their shapes, sizes, flavors and, above all, their colors. The peppers change colour during ripening: the green pepper is picked before its full maturity. If left on the plant, it will become yellow, then orange and then red at the very end of its ripening.

Active principles and properties

Several prospective and epidemiological studies have observed that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other chronic diseases. Some action mechanisms have been proposed to explain this protective effect; the presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in it.

Antioxidants. Antioxidants are compounds protecting the body’s cells from damage caused by free radicals. The latter are highly reactive molecules that would be involved in the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to aging. The antioxidant activity of peppers may vary depending on their stage of ripening, but also according to their geographical origin, the season and the conditions of cultivation. Green and red peppers contain varying amounts of several types of antioxidants. The red peppers contain more than the green ones.

Phenolic compounds. Phenolic compounds are antioxidant substances present in foods of plant origin. Flavonoids (mainly quercetin) and derivatives of hydroxycinnamic acid were quantified in the pepper. The flavonoid content gradually decreases with the ripening of the pepper. Thus, it’s five to eight times higher in green peppers (plucked before maturity) than in red peppers. Phenolic compounds are mainly located in the peel of the pepper, which fortunately is commonly consumed.

Carotenoids. Carotenoids are also compounds with antioxidant properties. The consumption of foods rich in carotenoids would be related to a lesser risk of suffering from certain cancers. The predominant carotenoids of green pepper are lutein and beta-carotene. As a comparison, green peppers contain three and six times less carotenoids than broccoli and spinach (for an equivalent weight), respectively. Red peppers have high content in beta-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin, precursors of vitamin A in the body, and in different xanthophylls. According to health authority’s nutrient file, red pepper also contains lycopene. For the purpose of comparison, it contains four to five times less than the pink grapefruit. In total, red peppers contain nearly nine times more carotenoid pigments than green peppers.

Vitamin C. Pepper is one of the best sources of vitamin C. The content in this vitamin increases during the ripening of the pepper and and is about twice as high in red peppers as in green ones, which did not reach their full maturity. Vitamin C has antioxidant properties and may be partly responsible for the beneficial effects associated with high fruit and vegetable consumption. In one study, the consumption of about 80 mg of vitamin C in the form of vegetable soup (500 ml, containing tomatoes, peppers and cucumbers) for 14 days increased the levels of vitamin C in the blood on average by 24%. Such a vitamin C contribution corresponds to about 125 ml of green pepper or 70 ml of red or yellow pepper. These results showed that increased levels of vitamin C in the blood (and potentially other active compounds) contributed to the reduction of oxidation and inflammation in the body, a protective effect against the onset of some Degenerative diseases associated with aging.

Cancer. Special attention has been paid to the potential anti-cancer effects of pepper. Indeed, pepper extracts have been shown to inhibit the formation or action of certain carcinogenic compounds (such as nitrosamines) in vitro. In addition, a study showed that the consumption of peppers and other vegetables could reduce the risk of being affected by a brain tumor (which could be a cause of nitrosamines). The antioxidant compounds of pepper (including vitamin C and carotenoids) may partly explain the obtained results, but more research is needed to identify the active principles and to better understand the mechanisms involved.

For optimum conservation

The vitamin C content of the peppers tends to vary during storage. According to recent data, the conservation of green peppers at room temperature for 10 days after harvesting would increase their vitamin C content.

Under the same conditions, this vitamin tends to decrease in red peppers, since the latter have already reached their full maturity. In addition, after 20 days of storage in the refrigerator, there would be no loss of vitamin C in green peppers and a small decrease (15%) in red peppers.

The freezing also plays on the vitamin C content of the peppers. However, water-laundering before freezing would reduce losses by about 25%.

Precautions

Green Pepper is one of the foods which can be implicated in oral allergy syndrome. This syndrome is an allergic reaction to certain proteins of a range of fruits, vegetables and nuts. It affects some people with allergies to the environment’s pollen. This syndrome is almost always preceded by hay fever. When some people allergic to birch pollen consume raw green pepper (cooking usually degrades allergen proteins), an immunological reaction may occur. Local symptoms that are confined to the mouth, lips, and throat such as itching and burning sensations can then occur, and usually disappear for a few minutes after consuming or touching the food being implicated. In the absence of other symptoms, this reaction is not serious and the consumption of green pepper does not have to be avoided systematically. However, it’s recommended to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to plant foods. The latter will be able to assess whether special precautions should be taken.

Selection and conservation

Preparation

To peel the pepper, it is usually recommended to roast it on all sides directly on the flame of a gas cooker, using a blowtorch or in the oven. When the skin is partially charred, it’s put in a bag of paper or plastic to make it “sweat” about twenty minutes. The skin then peels off easily. However, this process has the effect of altering the organoleptic qualities of the pepper and giving it a grilled flavor that is not suitable for all recipes.

Remove the seeds as well as the white membrane, rather indigestible.

Conservation

It’s best to keep the pepper in a dry and cool place rather than in the refrigerator if you plan to eat it quickly.

Refrigerator: It can be kept about a week in the crisper. Place it without washing it in a perforated bag.

Freezer: Wash and remove the white seeds and membranes from the peppers. Cut diced, sliced or strips. Spread the pieces on a plate and put in the freezer for at least one hour. Then enclose the pieces of pepper in airtight bags and return to freeze. Peppers can also be laundered beforehand by boiling for 5 minutes.

Organic gardening

Seed: Put seeds eight to ten weeks before the last frost in bins inside, and ensure that the seedlings receive all the light they need.

Transplant: when the soil is warmed in a sunny place, spacing 30 to 45 cm in the row and from 70 to 90 cm between the rows. To promote the warming of the soil, cover the deck or the rank of a black plastic as soon as possible in the spring. At the time of planting, replace the plastic with a thick mulch of leaves or straw.

Fertilization: Before planting, add a good pellet of compost to the hole and then fertilize it for two weeks with a foliar fertilizer based on algae and fish extract.

Protect the plants with a geotextile cloth or plastic cages when the night temperature drops below 15 ºC.

In a windy area, it is better to tutor the plants.

Ripening

Between the time the pepper reaches its full size and the one where it turns red (full ripening), depending on the varieties, it will take 12 to 28 days if the temperature is between 18 ºC and 24 ºC. Below 18 ºC, the curing process slows considerably, while below 15 ºC, it ceases completely. It is therefore important to choose early varieties. In the four-lobed pepper category, King Arthur, Lady Bell, La Bamba, Merlin, Ace, Bell Boy and Red Knight are doing well in temperated climates. In the other categories, round of Hungary (ribbed), Lipstick (cone shaped) and Jingle bells (miniature) are also early.

Ecology and environment

The genus Capsicum includes many wild species that are virtually untapped in agriculture. Because of their genetic diversity, these species are an exceptional resource for those who work to improve cultivated species and to create new varieties. Unfortunately, this genetic diversity is at present threatened by the fact that the wild habitats of Capsicum is subjected to a high pressure caused by human activities, particularly by deforestation, which is practiced on a large scale in South AmericaP. The researchers who are interested in Capsicum are therefore working to establish seed banks in the hope of saving what remains of this important genetic background.

Pepper: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

Leek is a vegetable plant of the family alliums (or Lily), the same as that of garlic, onion etc. Formed of leaves wrapped close to each other, its subterranean part, called white leek, is tender and most appreciated, while its green leaves from the top are hard and less used. The leek arrived in North America with the settlers who cultivated it at the end of the 18th century, but it would never take a very large place in the kitchen, as well as in Asia.

History of the leek

According to the new botanical nomenclature, plants of the genus Allium now belong to the family of alliums. They are still sometimes classified as Lily or Amaryllidaceae.

Like onion and garlic, the leek comes from the Middle East and Southwest Asia. They would have been domesticated several millennia before our era. Adopted by the Greeks and the Romans, it was spread it throughout Europe by them. The leek was, it seems, Nero’s favorite food who would have consumed it regularly for the purpose of maintaining his vocal cords.

In America, settlers and Amerindians cultivated it at the end of the eighteenth century. It will never became very important, neither in Asia. In Europe it’s mainly grown in the centre and the west. France and Belgium alone produce half of all the leeks consumed on this continent.

First leek was a bulb plant, like onion and garlic, but it has become what it is today under the pressure of selection by gardeners. Very early on, they tried to reduce the size of the bulb and to increase the length of its white bole relative to the green foliage.

Leek health profile

Leek is part of the same family as onion and garlic. Its subtle and delicate flavor charms soups and salads. The sulfur compounds and antioxidants it contains could have a protective effect against certain cancers.

The benefits of leek

Several epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other chronic diseases. The presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in this protection.

Cancer. According to some studies, the consumption of vegetables from the family of alliums (for example, leek, onion, garlic, shallot, chives, spring) would have a protective effect against cancers of the stomach and intestine. Further research has shown no connection between the consumption of different vegetables, including leeks, and certain types of cancers such as breast, lung, stomach, colon and rectum. According to the authors, the amount consumed by active compounds from the leek was insufficient to detect a tangible effect. Studies evaluating the more regular consumption of leeks will therefore be necessary to prove its beneficial properties.

Blood cholesterol. One study indicated that the leek extract, administered to rabbits, resulted in a decrease in total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol). The flavonoids and saponins contained in the leek could play a role in these effects. Several studies have shown that garlic has beneficial effects on blood cholesterol among humans, further studies are needed to check if the leek could have similar properties.

What does the leek contain?

Sulfur compounds

Like all alliums, the leek has a characteristic odour due to its content in sulfur compounds (which contain one or more sulfur atoms in their chemical structure). These compounds are formed when these vegetables are cut or crushed. Many of these sulfur compounds have been associated with the decrease in the risk of cancer among animals, but the studies carried out so far target mainly those of garlic and onion. In addition, data are not available for the time being for the absorption of sulphur compounds from leek by the human body.

Antioxidants

The leek contains different antioxidant compounds, such as flavonoids and carotenoids. Sulfur compounds would also have an antioxidant action, that is, they would protect the body cells from damage caused by free radicals and prevent the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to aging.

The dominant flavonoid in the leek is the kaempferol, which could be one of the active principles in the potential anti-cancer effect of leeks. The dark green leaves of the outer part of the leek contain the predominant quantities of this antioxidant. Beta-carotene is one of the important carotenoids of the leek. As a comparison, the carrot, recognized as one of the richest vegetables in beta-carotene, contains six times more. The leek would not have a very strong antioxidant power compared to other green vegetables. Cooking (boiling, steaming, microwave) would result in an average loss of about 20% of the total content in phenolic compounds but would not affect the antioxidant activity of leeks.

Saponins

The leek contains saponins and sapogenins. These substances would, among other things, have the ability to reduce blood cholesterol among the animal. The different types of saponins and sapogenins isolated from the leek may have anti-cancer and anti-fungal properties (i.e., capable of preventing the development of fungal infections). However, the studies carried out on the subject do not make it possible to draw a clear conclusion as to their effect on human health.

Precautions

Allergy

The reported cases of allergy to the leek are rather rare. However, it’s possible that a person allergic to other vegetables in the Alliums family responds to leek consumption. In fact, cross reactions with garlic, onion, chives and leeks are likely to occur and could be caused by an allergen common to these vegetables. A person with allergies to one of these foods could therefore also be allergic to another food in this family.

Urinary stones

Some people may be recommended to adopt a restricted diet in oxalates to prevent recurrence of renal or urinary stones (also known as urinary lithiasis). Oxalates are compounds found in several foods, including leeks. It is therefore not advisable for these people to consume them.

Choice and conservation

Choose

The stalk of the leek must be straight, fleshy, firm, with a bright white, without brown spots. The leaves should be well green, wilted, neither yellow nor desiccated.

Keep

Refrigerator. At temperatures close to the freezing point and high relative humidity, the leek can be stored for two to three months. Its leaves will probably turn yellow, but the white remains healthy. On the other hand, the small leek can only be kept one or two weeks in the refrigerator.

Freezer. Cut into slices and blanch for a few minutes in boiling water before freezing. Consider freezing some of the green leaves for the broths.

Organic gardening

Breeders have developed varieties for the summer, fall or winter, allowing the cultivation of leeks for a good part of the year. Protected from the cold by a mulch, winter leeks can be harvested in the spring (in southern Canada).

To have young leeks throughout the summer and fall, sow in bins or boxes at regular intervals from February to the end of June. From April onwards, they can also be planted directly in the open land. On the other hand, large winter leeks must be sown very early (February or March), as they require a long season to arrive at maturity. At the time of transplantation, cut roots to 1 cm and leaves at 5 cm.

The organic fertilization is very favourable to leek, even when the manure is recent and is not well decomposed. Be careful, however, to eliminate any risk of fecal coliform contamination. In most of the specifications of the biological certification bodies, it’s stipulated that vegetables cannot be harvested on land enriched with fresh manure (i.e. not composted) only eight months or more after the manure has been landfilled.

The leek and celery association is considered beneficial for both plants. However, since celery may make shade to the leek, which would not support it, it must be grown in neighbouring flowerbeds rather than in the same. If the rows are oriented east-west, make sure the leeks are planted on the south side. On the other hand, when planted in the middle of the celery, the leeks grow higher and the white part of the stem is much longer. It’s a benefit which can be taken at an advantage, knowing however that they will never become as big as if they were grown alone or placed south of celery.

To blanch the leeks, they are butted during the season where laths are placed on either side of the keg so as to exclude the light.

At the end of the season, return the leeks that remain in a cellar by keeping as much land as possible around the foot. replanted in crates filled with land, they will quietly pursue their growth. Deprived of light, the leaves will turn yellow.

Ecology and environment

In France, thrips (insect pests) are a problem for seed-carrying leeks. A biological solution had to be found to combat them without jeopardizing pollinating insect populations. The latter are voluntarily released during this period because they are necessary for the production of seeds. Larvae of another insect, lacewing, were found to devour thrips. The results fully satisfy the producers of leek seed. Also, the environment is a little better protected from the harmful action of chemicals.

Leek: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

Pea is a climbing plant classified in the family of legumes whose fruits, edible green pods, contain small green seeds: peas.

History of pea

It may be the home of the genus Pisum but it wasn’t unique, as it has long thought, but multiple. Central Asia (from northwestern India to Afghanistan) would have been its main place of development, while the Middle East, the Mediterranean Basin and Ethiopia (plateau and mountains) would be secondary places. It would have been domesticated about 10 000 years ago, at the same time as the old wheats and lentils, and probably also the sheep and the goat.

From its center in the Middle East, it will quickly spread westward (Turkey and Greece), then northward. In France, in the debris left by those who lived in what is now called Languedoc, scientists found pea seeds dating from 7 000 years before our age. Three thousand years later, its culture was common in the Rhine valley. It then settled everywhere, especially in China in the first century A.D., and in America from the beginning of colonization.

For a long time, peas would only be grown for its dry seed, with fresh peas being mentioned for the first time in the 12th century in England. You would have to wait for the year 1536 to read a detailed description in a French book. Nevertheless, the food did not appear on the French markets until the beginning of the seventeenth century, coming from Holland, and it was only in 1660 that the pea made its great entry in France. Until the beginning of the next century, the pea remained a rarity commanding such high prices, which only the nobility and the aristocracy were able to afford it.

As it does not keep long, it will only was grown on a large scale with the invention of the (canning technique) in 1821. Finally, thanks to the improvement of the freezing techniques, one can today preserve a good part of the nutritional and taste qualities of this green vegetable.

Pea health profile

Although it belongs to the botanical family of legumes, fresh green pea is an immature seed which is consumed as a vegetable. It contains more protein than most other vegetables. Except in season, green pea is relatively unavailable in its fresh form. Many are frozen or canned. The pea has a pod less tough and sweeter and its seeds are very small. It is therefore eaten whole, pod and seeds, and is more easily found on the shelves in fresh condition. In grains, fresh peas contain a wide variety of vitamins and minerals.

Active principles and properties

For vegetables in general

Several epidemiological studies have shown that high consumption of vegetables and fruit decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease, certain cancers and other chronic diseases. Some mechanisms of action have been proposed to explain these protective effects: the presence of antioxidants in vegetables and fruits could play a role in it.

For fresh peas

Antioxidants. Antioxidants are compounds protecting the body’s cells from damage caused by free radicals. The latter are highly reactive molecules which would be involved in the development of cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers and other diseases related to ageing.

• Lutein and zeaxanthin. Green peas contain a good amount of lutein and zeaxanthin, two antioxidant compounds of the caratenoids family. According to health authorities, 125 ml (½ cup) of raw green peas contain 1 898 μg lutein and zeaxanthin, while 125 ml (½ cup) of boiled green peas contain 2 192 μg. These quantities are much higher than those found in common pods, i.e., 252 μg for ten raw pods and 593 μg for 125 ml (½ cup) cooked. In addition, a study among humans showed that green pea lutein was more bioavailable (better absorbed by the body) than those of other vegetables such as spinach. Lutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in the macula and retina of the eye, thus protecting it from oxidative stress which could cause damage. Moreover, data from a journal of scientific literature indicate a steady intake of lutein and zeaxanthin is associated with a lower risk of macular degeneration and cataract, two eye diseases. It’s also beginning to imply that these compounds could help prevent certain cancers, especially those of the breast and lung, and contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. It should be noted, however, studies on the cardiovascular level are still limited and sometimes contradictory.

Protein. According to health authorities nutrient file, at equal weight, a portion of green peas can contain nearly twice as much protein as a portion of peas with tiny seeds. Indeed, although green pea is primed and consumed as a vegetable, mature seed is a legume, a family of foods which is one of the most important sources of vegetable protein. Green pea proteins are less digestible and less complete than animal proteins. Cooking can, however, improve their digestibility and the nutritional value of peas. In addition, vegetarians will be able to consume, within the same day, a variety of protein-rich foods which can form a complete healthy intake (legumes, nuts, cereals, dairy products or eggs).

Dietary fibers. With more than 5 g per serving of 125 ml (½ cup, cooked) of dietary fiber, green pea is a high source of it. Food fibers, which are found only in plants, group together a set of substances that are not digested by the body. A diet rich in fiber is associated with a lower risk of colon cancer and can satisfy the appetite by bringing more quickly a sensation of satiety. There are two major types of fibers (soluble and insoluble) having different effects on the body: green peas contain both. Insoluble fibers are given the ability to prevent constipation by increasing stool volume, while soluble fibers can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease and to assist in the control of type 2 diabetes. It’s recommended to consume 25 g of fiber per day for women aged 19 to 50 years, and 38 g per day for men of this same group age.

Precautions

Oral allergy syndrome

Green pea is one of the foods that can be implicated in oral allergy syndrome. This syndrome is an allergic reaction to certain proteins of a range of fruits, vegetables and nuts. It affects some people with allergies to the pollen of the environment and is characterized by symptoms to the mouth and throat. It’s almost always preceded by hay fever. Local symptoms are confined to the mouth, lips, and throat such as itching and burning sensations can then occur, and usually disappear for a few minutes after consuming or touching the food being implicated. In the absence of other symptoms, this reaction is not serious and the consumption of green peas does not have to be avoided systematically. It is recommended, however, to consult an allergist to determine the cause of the reactions to plant foods. The latter will be able to assess whether special precautions should be taken.

Selection and conservation

Choice

Fresh peas begin a process of converting sugar into starch from the moment they are picked. It is therefore necessary to buy them as fresh as possible, preferably on the day of their picking. Their pod must be shiny, green, swollen and firm. The grain of peas should be crunchy and slightly sweet. They will only be Scottish at the last moment.

The snow pea must be green, well flat and small, because too big, it has strings. However, the presence of yarn does not necessarily mean that the pea has exceeded the stage where it has to be harvested. The temperature at the time of maturation of the pods is important. Simply remove the strings by pulling them from the tip to the stalk.

Sugar Snap peas should be green and the grain should fill the pod well. Remove the strings if necessary.

Cooking

Snow peas and Sugar Snap peas can be eaten raw when they are well fresh and tender. Add them to a salad or soup or present them on a plate of various vegetables for a dip.
The young pea shoots or the ends of the plants are traditionally consumed in Asia: tender, crunchy, they will be added to the salads and hardly be fried in the wok. Still rare in the trade, one can find them in the Oriental markets and some western groceries.

Conservation

Refrigerator: Fresh peas can be kept two or three days in the cooler part of the refrigerator. If you have to keep them longer, put them in crushed ice without delay.

Freezer: Although, theoretically, the snow pea freezes, it does not always look very good once thawed. On the other hand, the pea and Sugar Snap pea perfectly support freezing, after being bleached for a few minutes and then cooled in icy water.

Dehydrator: Peas dehydrate very well after whitening. On the other hand, the snow pea doesn’t take an interesting texture after drying.

If you have to freeze or dry a large amount of peas, you can use a manual or electric scoter.

Organic gardening

Seedlings. Round-grained peas are more resistant to cold and moisture than those with wrinkled grains. On the other hand, the latter are sweeter, remain tender for a longer period, can be harvested larger and tolerate the heat better. Choose the varieties according to the temperatures so as to spread the production throughout the summer and fall. Make a first round pea seeding around April 15 (southern Canada) followed by one or two seed pea seedlings in May. You can try a last round of wrinkled peas at the end of July to get a crop in the fall, however, it is a riskier adventure because powdery mildew and various other fungal diseases may occur at this time of year; choose resistant varieties and treat with sulfur.

Varieties. All varieties of peas (pea, snow pea, Sugar Snap pea) will give dry peas if they are given time, but some varieties have been selected strictly for this purpose. Their seeds are more difficult to find in the retail market, this type of crop is usually large-scale by specialized producers. However, old varieties can be found, giving unsurpassed quality soup peas, through seed exchange groups. By cultivating the varieties with oars (some can climb up to 3 m or 4 m), you will gain a lot of space compared to the dwarf varieties. At least 100 days, or even 120, for most of these varieties.

Soil temperature at the time of sowing. From 4 °C to 14 °C, ideally 10 °C.

ph. From 5.5 to 6.5, ideally the highest measurement. Below 6, add lime and inoculate with rhizobium.

Fungal diseases. In conventional agriculture, seeds are treated with fungicides to limit the damage caused by fusarium, root rot, and seedling melting. In organic farming, it’s imperative to choose resistant cultivars, to ensure the soil is very well drained, to postpone the sowing date if the temperatures are too cold and if it is too humid and, despite all these measures, to accept a certain loss, leaving to sow again a few days later. You can try to treat the seeds at the horsetail, but this is not guaranteed. To counteract powdery mildew, choose resistant varieties and treat with sulfur.

Slugs and birds. Garlic could be effective against slugs, as researchers have recently discovered, but you will avoid planting these two plants next to each other, legumes and alliums experiencing a deep aversion to one another. Use garlic in foliar treatment. To prevent the birds from chipping the seeds just sown or when the young plant emerges, install a scarecrow, aluminum plates hanging from a wire or any other system that will cause them to worry.

Peas as green manure. Sow 2 kilos to 4 kilos per 100 m2 of platform.

Ecology and Environment

A fine example of symbiosis

Rhizobacteria (Rhizobium spp.) are bacteria living in the soil and having the ability to stimulate the formation of small bulges called nodules on the roots of certain plants, especially legumes. Bacteria then colonize these nodules. Once well installed, they transform the nitrogen from the atmosphere, unusable by the plant, into soluble fertilizer which the latter can assimilate and which promotes its growth. Moreover, once the plant has completed its growth cycle, it leaves in the soil nitrogen reserves for the plants that will follow it and which do not have the possibility to enter into symbiosis with the Rhizobacteria. In fact, apart from legumes, a single plant belonging to another family (ulmaceae) is known to host these bacteria.

So it’s a unique phenomenon in nature and a trait that organic farmers use to increase nitrogen reserves in the soil without the use of chemical fertilizers. When used for this purpose, they bury the legumes in the soil before they are fully mature. A few weeks later or the following season, they will be able to sow vegetable plants with high nitrogen needs, such as lettuce or cabbage.

Pea: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation

If the sweet potato is not very present in Western cuisines, it has always been in those of all tropical countries. Native to Central America (where it is called “Camoe”), sweet potato, despite its name and although it is a tuber, has nothing to do with potatoes. It is distinguished by its elongated shape (sometimes it looks like a big carrot), whose colors, both the skin and the flesh, vary from beige/brown to orange, red or violet. It is an integral part of southern cuisine.

History of sweet potato

It has long been believed that sweet potato came from India, and some still claim it. This plant probably grew on the Indian sub-continent before the sixteenth century. However, archaeological excavations carried out in Peruvian sites, where the earliest vestiges date back to 8 000 years before our era, indicate it’s native to South America. It is not known whether they are cultivated varieties, but if were the case, sweet potato would probably be the first plant to have been domesticated in the new world, or even on the planet. The wild ancestor of this species has never been found, although other species of the genus Ipomoea have been found.

The sweet potato was introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese in Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia after the conquest of the New World. On the other hand, it was introduced in Oceania long before the discovery of America, perhaps around 1 500 BCE. It would have travelled westward by borrowing the South American and then Polynesian boats to settle gradually on all the Pacific Islands, where it has long been part of the basic diet. Another hypothesis is that its seeds may have been disseminated by birds, including the Golden plover of Polynesia, reputed to be an occasional visitor to the western coast of South America. Other researchers believe the capsules containing the seeds would have been driven by marine currents and would have settled along the fertile shores of the Pacific Islands.

Today, sweet potato is grown in all tropical countries, where it’s an important food resource. In many places, livestock are also fed with it.

Sweet potato health profile

The benefits of sweet potato

Cancer. The results of an epidemiological study indicate men who have a typically “South American” diet, consisting of sweet potatoes, dry beans, okra (or okra) and rice, are less likely to be affected by prostate cancer.

A study conducted in India indicated the consumption of Brassica vegetables and sweet potatoes was associated with lesser risk of gallbladder cancer.

In Japan, researchers found a significant decrease in the risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women correlated with increased consumption of several vegetables, including potatoes and sweet potatoes.

In Japanese, root-type foods containing a lot of starch, such as sweet potato, potatoes and taro, would be associated with a lower risk of kidney cancer. As for the sweet potato leaves, they could offer protection against lung cancer.

Anthocyanins extracted from the sweet purple potato would reduce the incidence of colorectal cancer when added to the diet of animals. In vitro, sweet potato or its leaves have proven to be effective in preventing the production of genetic mutations (mutation of a gene may lead in some cases to cancer development) and the growth of cancerous cells. However, other studies will need to be done to determine whether these experimental results can be applied to the regular consumption of sweet potatoes.

Cardiovascular diseases. The sweet potato, thanks to the phenolic compounds and the anthocyanins it contains, could prevent and decrease the oxidation of “bad” cholesterol (LDL), a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases. The anthocyanins found in the sweet purple potato would also decrease the progression of the atherosclerosis.

Sweet potato leaves could also exert a protective effect on the inner wall of the blood vessels. The results of an in vitro study show that the leaf extracts lead to the relaxation of blood vessels, particularly those of aorta. However, more studies are needed before concluding a cardioprotective effect among humans.

Hepatic function. One study showed that the consumption of a drink made from sweet purple potatoes improved liver function among men at risk of hepatitis and decreased hepatic enzyme levels (these were indicators of lesions or liver disease). Some studies among animals indicated that extracts of anthocyanins from the purple sweet potato had a protective effect on the liver, for example by protecting it from damage caused by high doses of acetaminophen (e.g. Tylenol).

Diabetes. According to 3 studies, an extract of a type of white-skinned sweet potato (grown mainly in South America and Japan) could reduce insulin resistance and thus improve blood glucose control, both among animals and among people with type 2 diabetes. However, it’s still too early to conclude an antidiabetic effect of sweet potatoes, especially since they contain a significant amount of carbohydrates, a nutrient diabetics must control their diet.

Immune system. It has been shown in vitro that the “antidiabetic” ingredient in white-skinned sweet potatoes stimulated the immune response. In addition, a polysaccharide extracted from the sweet potato would exert beneficial effects on the animal’s immune system, among other things by increasing the proliferation of lymphocytes and the phagocytic function, two defense systems of the body. As the mechanisms play a role in the immune response are complex, further research will be needed to better document these effects.

Cognitive impairment. Some pigments contained in the sweet purple potato would slow down the deterioration of cognitive function and some memory disorders in mice. Further studies will be needed to confirm these results among humans.

Where are the antioxidants?

The skin of the sweet purple potato contains more anthocyanins than the flesh. Moreover, the more the color of the flesh of this potato is dark, the more it contains anthocyanins.

As for sweet potato leaves, in addition to being rich in phenolic compounds, they also contain anthocyanin. Note that the leaves of the plant are suitable for consumption.

In summary, choosing sweet potatoes of dark color, consuming them with their skins and tasting the leaves makes it easy to add antioxidant compounds to your diet.

What does the sweet potato contain?

Anthocyanins

Some varieties of sweet potatoes, including the purple one (cultivars developed mainly in New Zealand and Japan), contain many anthocyanins, pigments giving its color. The anthocyanins are part of the flavonoid family and are known for their multiple anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The anthocyanins of the purple sweet potato showed an antioxidant activity in vitro superior to those of vitamin C2, as well as the one of the anthocyanins from the grape peel, red cabbage, elderberry berry and purple corn. The antioxidant power of anthocyanins from the purple sweet potato would play a major role in the beneficial effects on cardiovascular health and on the liver. Research is continuing on them.

Other researchers have noticed that several extracts of anthocyanins, including those contained in the sweet purple potato, could be useful in the prevention of diabetes. These compounds inhibit an enzyme that partly influences the elevation of blood glucose which occurs after the digestion of carbohydrates among the animal.

Finally, anthocyanins would contribute to the enhancement of cognitive functions among mice by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress in their brain.

Carotenoids

Carotenoids are compounds with antioxidant properties, they are able to neutralize the free radicals of the body. The consumption of carotenoid-rich foods would be related to a lesser risk of suffering from several diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease, although some results are controversial. The sweet potato contains large quantities of these carotenoids and beta-carotene. This is a precursor of vitamin A (i.e. the body transforms it into vitamin A according to its needs).

The bioavailability of the beta-carotene of the orange sweet potato would be much greater when the vegetable is cooked. Studies have shown daily consumption of cooked sweet potatoes increases vitamin A levels among children, and among men at risk of starvation in this vitamin. The results show the conversion of beta-carotene to vitamin A in the body is facilitated by the presence of at least 3 g of fat taken at the same meal. The sweet potato would therefore be a food of choice in the prevention of vitamin A deficiency, particularly in developing countries.

Phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds have an antioxidant activity playing a protective role in the incidence of several cardiovascular and degenerative diseases. According to one study, the sweet potato leaves would contain the most, followed by the peel and the flesh. The leaves would contain even more than some green leaves. Sweet potato puree, whether made from the whole vegetable or peeled, would contain as many phenolic compounds and would have a similar antioxidant activity.

Trypsin inhibitory protein

Trypsin inhibitory protein, contained in sweet potato, showed an in vitro antioxidant effect and could be beneficial to health. This substance could be useful in cancer prevention, particularly in the case of leukemia. However, few studies have been published on the subject and further research will be needed to confirm these results.

Arabinogalactan

This protein, found in the white sweet potato, would participate in part in the antidiabetic virtues of vegetables.

Choice and conservation

Choose

Sweet potatoes are found in most grocery stores. The color of their flesh goes from white cream to purple through orange and red. From a nutritional point of view, orange or purple-fleshed varieties are preferable.

Organic gardening

Although sweet potato originates from the tropics, researchers have selected varieties which can be grown in the north with relative success. Very decorative, the plant is also grown in flower beds. The propagation is done by cuttings. Cuttings can be obtained from a specialist or taken from one or more of the plants having been kept potted inside during the winter. It will be enough to put them in water until they have formed good roots.

Transplant seedlings as soon as they are delivered or keep them in water until it’s possible to put them in the ground, i.e. when the dangers of freezing are removed. Choose a sunny, hot and weed-free place. Shape earthy buttons to help grow tubers.

The pH should be between 5 and 6.5. Apply a biological fertilizer based on phosphate and potassium. Avoid nitrogen that may favour stems at the expense of tubers. Make sure that the irrigation is constant, but do not allow the plants to have their feet in water.

The harvest is done when the frost blackens the leaves or when the temperature falls below 10 ºC. Make the tubers mature for 1 week or 2 in a humid place where the temperature is about 27 ºC, then keep at 18 ºC in the dark.

Ecology and Environment

Less demanding for soil and more productive per hectare than cereals, sweet potato is also particularly well suited to arid climates and dry soils. Moreover, since it has rampant stalks, it protects the ground against wind erosion. In the tropical countries, unlike the large cereal crops, it is mainly made up of small producers, especially women, who often cultivate it on tiny plots of land. It allows them to feed their families at a lower cost. The plant is easy to multiply, since it’s usually enough to collect cuttings on the established plants and to prick them directly into the Earth, without any other important intervention. Energetic and nutrient rich, it is, together with the other root vegetables, an invaluable food source for the world’s most deprived.

In Africa and the Caribbean, it’s the basis of a prolific artisanal industry: the manufacture of a flour that is less expensive and richer than wheat. The peasants turn it into breads, cakes and other common consumer products which they sell in the local markets.
Considered as a safety food, it has saved millions of people from starvation, in Africa, Japan and China, as a result of ecological or human disasters (drought, armed conflict, etc.). In the semi-arid plains of eastern Africa, it bears the name of Culta Abana, literally “protecting children”. In addition, it’s currently considered to be one of the best solutions to the serious vitamin A deficiency problem in sub-saharan Africa. In these regions, millions of children under 5 years of age suffer from xerophthalmia, an ocular disease directly attributable to this deficiency and partly responsible for the high mortality rate among pregnant women. However, researchers have observed the consumption of orange-fleshed sweet potatoes, even in small quantities, eliminates the risk of vitamin A deficiency.

Sweet potato: nutrition facts and health benefits
Nutrition and Innovation